Engineering:Outer Space Treaty

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Short description: Basis of international space law
Outer Space Treaty
French: Traité de l'espace
Russian: Договор о космосе
Spanish: Tratado sobre el espacio ultraterrestre
Chinese: 外层空间条约
Arabic: معاهدة الفضاء الخارجي
Outer Space Treaty parties map colors updated 03012022.svg
  Parties
  Signatories
  Non-parties
Signed27 January 1967
LocationLondon, Moscow and Washington, D.C.
Effective10 October 1967; 56 years ago (1967-10-10)
Condition5 ratifications, including the depositary Governments
Parties114[1][2][3][4]
DepositaryGovernments of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America
LanguagesEnglish, French, Russian, Spanish, Chinese and Arabic
Outer Space Treaty of 1967 at Wikisource

The Outer Space Treaty, formally the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is a multilateral treaty that forms the basis of international space law. Negotiated and drafted under the auspices of the United Nations, it was opened for signature in the United States , the United Kingdom , and the Soviet Union on 27 January 1967, entering into force on 10 October 1967. (As of August 2023), 114 countries are parties to the treaty—including all major spacefaring nations—and another 22 are signatories.[1][5][6]

The Outer Space Treaty was spurred by the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) in the 1950s, which could reach targets through outer space.[7] The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, in October 1957, followed by a subsequent arms race with the United States, hastened proposals to prohibit the use of outer space for military purposes. On 17 October 1963, the U.N. General Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution prohibiting the introduction of weapons of mass destruction in outer space. Various proposals for an arms control treaty governing outer space were debated during a General Assembly session in December 1966, culminating in the drafting and adoption of the Outer Space Treaty the following January.[8]

Key provisions of the Outer Space Treaty include prohibiting nuclear weapons in space; limiting the use of the Moon and all other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes; establishing that space shall be freely explored and used by all nations; and precluding any country from claiming sovereignty over outer space or any celestial body. Although it forbids establishing military bases, testing weapons and conducting military maneuvers on celestial bodies, the treaty does not expressly ban all military activities in space, nor the establishment of military space forces or the placement of conventional weapons in space.[9][10] From 1968 to 1984, the OST birthed four additional agreements: rules for activities on the Moon; liability for damages caused by spacecraft; the safe return of fallen astronauts; and the registration of space vehicles.[11]

OST provided many practical uses and was the most important link in the chain of international legal arrangements for space from the late 1950s to the mid-1980s. OST was at the heart of a 'network' of inter-state treaties and strategic power negotiations to achieve the best available conditions for nuclear weapons world security. The OST also declares that space is an area for free use and exploration by all and "shall be the province of all mankind". Drawing heavily from the Antarctic Treaty of 1961, the Outer Space Treaty likewise focuses on regulating certain activities and preventing unrestricted competition that could lead to conflict.[12] Consequently, it is largely silent or ambiguous on newly developed space activities such as lunar and asteroid mining.[13][14][15] Nevertheless, the Outer Space Treaty is the first and most foundational legal instrument of space law,[16] and its broader principles of promoting the civil and peaceful use of space continue to underpin multilateral initiatives in space, such as the International Space Station and the Artemis Program.[17][18]

Provisions

The Outer Space Treaty represents the basic legal framework of international space law. According to the U.N. Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), the core principles of the treaty are:[19]

  • the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries and shall be the province of all mankind;
  • outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all States;
  • outer space is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means;
  • States shall not place nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies or station them in outer space in any other manner;
  • the Moon and other celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes; prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications
  • astronauts shall be regarded as the envoys of mankind;
  • States shall be responsible for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities;
  • States shall be liable for damage caused by their space objects; and
  • States shall avoid harmful contamination of space and celestial bodies.

Among its principles, it bars states party to the treaty from placing weapons of mass destruction in Earth orbit, installing them on the Moon or any other celestial body, or otherwise stationing them in outer space. It specifically limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes, and expressly prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications (Article IV). However, the treaty does not prohibit the placement of conventional weapons in orbit, and thus some highly destructive attack tactics, such as kinetic bombardment, are still potentially allowable.[20] In addition, the treaty explicitly allows the use of military personnel and resources to support peaceful uses of space, mirroring a common practice permitted by the Antarctic Treaty regarding that continent. The treaty also states that the exploration of outer space shall be done to benefit all countries and that space shall be free for exploration and use by all the states.

Article II of the treaty explicitly forbids any government from claiming a celestial body such as the Moon or a planet as its own territory, whether by declaration, occupation, or "any other means".[21] However, the state that launches a space object, such as a satellite or space station, retains jurisdiction and control over that object;[22] by extension, a state is also liable for damages caused by its space object.[23]

Responsibility for activities in space

Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty deals with international responsibility, stating that "the activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty" and that States Party shall bear international responsibility for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities.

As a result of discussions arising from Project West Ford in 1963, a consultation clause was included in Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty: "A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by another State Party in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment."[24][25]

Applicability in the 21st century

Being primarily an arms control treaty for the peaceful use of outer space, the Outer Space Treaty offers limited and ambiguous regulations to newer space activities such as lunar and asteroid mining.[13][15][26] It is therefore debated whether the extraction of resources falls within the prohibitive language of appropriation, or whether the use of such resources encompasses the commercial use and exploitation.[27]

Seeking clearer guidelines, private U.S. companies lobbied the U.S. government, which in 2015 introduced the U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015 legalizing space mining.[28] Similar national legislation to legalize the appropriation of extraterrestrial resources are now being introduced by other countries, including Luxembourg, Japan, China, India, and Russia.[13][26][29][30] This has created some controversy regarding legal claims over the mining of celestial bodies for profit.[26][27]

1976 Bogota Declaration

The "Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries", also known as the "Bogota Declaration", was one of the few attempts to challenge the Outer Space Treaty. It was promulgated in 1976 by eight equatorial countries to assert sovereignty over those portions of the geostationary orbit that continuously lie over the signatory nations' territory.[31] These claims did not receive wider international support or recognition, and were subsequently abandoned.[32]

Influence on space law

As the first international legal instrument concerning space, the Outer Space Treaty is considered the "cornerstone" of space law.[33][34] It was also the first major achievement of the United Nations in this area of law, following the adoption of the first U.N. General Assembly resolution on space in 1958,[35] and the first meeting of the U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) the subsequent year.[36]

Within roughly a decade of the treaty's entry into force, several other treaties were brokered by the U.N. to further develop the legal framework for activities in space:[37]

  • Rescue Agreement (1968)
  • Space Liability Convention (1972)
  • Registration Convention (1976)
  • Moon Treaty (1979)

With the exception of the Moon Treaty, to which only 18 nations are party, all other treaties on space law have been ratified by most major space-faring nations (namely those capable of orbital spaceflight).[38] COPUOS coordinates these treaties and other questions of space jurisdiction, aided by the U.N. Office for Outer Space Affairs.

List of parties

The Outer Space Treaty was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on 27 January 1967, and entered into force on 10 October 1967. As of August 2023, 114 countries are parties to the treaty, while another 22 have signed the treaty but have not completed ratification.[1]

Multiple dates indicate the different days in which states submitted their signature or deposition, which varied by location: (L) for London, (M) for Moscow, and (W) for Washington, D.C. Also indicated is whether the state became a party by way of signature and subsequent ratification, by accession to the treaty after it had closed for signature, or by succession of states after separation from some other party to the treaty.

State[1][2][3][4] Signed Deposited Method
 Afghanistan
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (M)
  • 1988 (L, M)
  • 1988 (W)
 Ratification
 Algeria 1992 (W) Accession
 Antigua and Barbuda
  • 1988 (W)
  • 1988 (M)
  • 1989 (L)
 Succession from  United Kingdom
 Argentina
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (M)
 1969 (M, W) Ratification
 Armenia 2018 (M) Accession
 Australia 1967 (W) 1967 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Austria 1967 (L, M, W) 1968 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Azerbaijan 2015 (L) Accession
 Bahamas
  • 1976 (L)
  • 1976 (W)
  • 1976 (M)
 Succession from  United Kingdom
 Bahrain 2019 (M) Accession
 Bangladesh
  • 1986 (L)
  • 1986 (W)
  • 1986 (M)
 Accession
 Barbados 1968 (W) Accession
 Belarus 1967 (M) 1967 (M) Ratification
 Belgium
  • 1967 (L, M)
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1973 (W)
  • 1973 (L, M)
 Ratification
 Benin
  • 1986 (M)
  • 1986 (L)
  • 1986 (W)
 Accession
 Bosnia and Herzegovina 2020 (L) Accession
 Brazil
  • 1967 (M)
  • 1967 (L, W)
 1969 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Bulgaria 1967 (L, M, W)
  • 1967 (M)
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (L)
 Ratification
 Burkina Faso 1967 (W) 1968 (W) Ratification
 Canada 1967 (L, M, W) 1967 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Chile
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (L)
  • 1967 (M)
 1981 (W) Ratification
 China
  • 1983 (W)
  • 1984 (M)
  • 1984 (L)
 Accession
 Croatia 2023 (W) Accession
 Cuba 1977 (M) Accession
 Cyprus
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (M)
  • 1967 (L)
  • 1972 (L, W)
  • 1972 (M)
 Ratification
 Czech Republic
  • 1993 (M, W)
  • 1993 (L)
 Succession from  Czechoslovakia
 Denmark 1967 (L, M, W) 1967 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Dominican Republic 1967 (W) 1968 (W) Ratification
 Ecuador
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (L)
  • 1967 (M)
 1969 (W) Ratification
 Egypt 1967 (M, W)
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1968 (M)
 Ratification
 El Salvador 1967 (W) 1969 (W) Ratification
 Equatorial Guinea 1989 (M) Accession
 Estonia 2010 (M) Accession
 Fiji
  • 1972 (W)
  • 1972 (L)
  • 1972 (M)
 Succession from  United Kingdom
 Finland 1967 (L, M, W) 1967 (L, M, W) Ratification
 France 1967 (L, M, W) 1970 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Germany 1967 (L, M, W) 1971 (L, W) Ratification
 Greece 1967 (W) 1971 (L) Ratification
 Guinea-Bissau 1976 (M) Accession
 Hungary 1967 (L, M, W) 1967 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Iceland 1967 (L, M, W) 1968 (L, M, W) Ratification
 India 1967 (L, M, W) 1982 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Indonesia
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (M)
  • 1967 (L)
 2002 (L) Ratification
 Iraq
  • 1967 (L, W)
  • 1967 (M)
  • 1968 (M)
  • 1969 (L)
 Ratification
 Ireland 1967 (L, W)
  • 1968 (W)
  • 1968 (L)
 Ratification
 Israel 1967 (L, M, W)
  • 1977 (W)
  • 1977 (L)
  • 1977 (M)
 Ratification
 Italy 1967 (L, M, W) 1972 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Jamaica 1967 (L, M, W)
  • 1970 (W)
  • 1970 (L)
  • 1970 (M)
 Ratification
 Japan 1967 (L, M, W) 1967 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Kazakhstan 1998 (M) Accession
 Kenya 1984 (L) Accession
 North Korea 2009 (M) Accession
 South Korea 1967 (W) 1967 (W) Ratification
 Kuwait
  • 1972 (W)
  • 1972 (L)
  • 1972 (M)
 Accession
 Laos
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (L)
  • 1967 (M)
  • 1972 (M)
  • 1972 (W)
  • 1973 (L)
 Ratification
 Lebanon 1967 (L, M, W)
  • 1969 (L, M)
  • 1969 (W)
 Ratification
 Libya 1968 (W) Accession
 Lithuania 2013 (W) Accession
 Luxembourg
  • 1967 (M, W)
  • 1967 (L)
 2006 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Madagascar 1968 (W) Accession
 Mali 1968 (M) Accession
 Malta 2017 (L) Accession
 Mauritius
  • 1969 (W)
  • 1969 (L)
  • 1969 (M)
 Succession from  United Kingdom
 Mexico 1967 (L, M, W) 1968 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Mongolia 1967 (M) 1967 (M) Ratification
 Morocco
  • 1967 (L, M)
  • 1967 (W)
 Accession
 Myanmar 1967 (L, M, W) 1970 (L, M, W) Ratification
   Nepal
  • 1967 (M, W)
  • 1967 (L)
  • 1967 (L)
  • 1967 (M)
  • 1967 (W)
 Ratification
 Netherlands 1967 (L, M, W) 1969 (L, M, W) Ratification
 New Zealand 1967 (L, M, W) 1968 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Nicaragua
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (L)
  • 2017 (W)
  • 2017 (M)
  • 2017 (L)
 Ratification
 Niger 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (L)
  • 1967 (W)
 Ratification
 Nigeria 1967 (L) Accession
 Norway 1967 (L, M, W) 1969 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Oman 2022 (L) Accession
 Pakistan 1967 (L, M, W) 1968 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Panama 1967 (W) 2023 (W) Ratification
 Papua New Guinea
  • 1980 (L)
  • 1980 (M)
  • 1981 (W)
 Succession from  Australia
 Paraguay 2016 (L) Accession
 Peru 1967 (W)
  • 1979 (M)
  • 1979 (L)
  • 1979 (W)
 Ratification
 Poland 1967 (L, M, W) 1968 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Portugal 1996 (L) Accession
 Qatar 2012 (W) Accession
 Romania 1967 (L, M, W) 1968 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Russia 1967 (L, M, W) 1967 (L, M, W) Ratification as the  Soviet Union
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1999 (L) Succession from  United Kingdom
 San Marino
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (L)
  • 1967 (M)
  • 1968 (W)
  • 1968 (M)
  • 1969 (L)
 Ratification
 Saudi Arabia 1976 (W) Accession
 Seychelles 1978 (L) Accession
 Sierra Leone
  • 1967 (L, M)
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (M)
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (L)
 Ratification
 Singapore 1976 (L, M, W) Accession
 Slovakia
  • 1993 (M, W)
  • 1993 (L)
 Succession from  Czechoslovakia
 Slovenia 2019 (L) Accession
 South Africa 1967 (W)
  • 1968 (W)
  • 1968 (L)
  • 1968 (M)
 Ratification
 Spain
  • 1968 (L)
  • 1968 (W)
 Accession
 Sri Lanka 1967 (L) 1986 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Sweden 1967 (L, M, W) 1967 (L, M, W) Ratification
  Switzerland
  • 1967 (L, W)
  • 1967 (M)
 1969 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Syria 1968 (M) Accession
 Thailand 1967 (L, M, W)
  • 1968 (L)
  • 1968 (M)
  • 1968 (W)
 Ratification
 Togo 1967 (W) 1989 (W) Ratification
 Tonga
  • 1971 (M)
  • 1971 (L, W)
 Succession from  United Kingdom
 Tunisia
  • 1967 (L, W)
  • 1967 (M)
  • 1968 (L)
  • 1968 (M)
  • 1968 (W)
 Ratification
 Turkey 1967 (L, M, W) 1968 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Uganda 1968 (W) Accession
 Ukraine 1967 (M) 1967 (M) Ratification
 United Arab Emirates 2000 (W) Accession
 United Kingdom 1967 (L, M, W) 1967 (L, M, W) Ratification
 United States 1967 (L, M, W) 1967 (L, M, W) Ratification
 Uruguay
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (M)
 1970 (W) Ratification
 Venezuela 1967 (W) 1970 (W) Ratification
 Vietnam 1980 (M) Accession
 Yemen 1979 (M) Accession
 Zambia
  • 1973 (W)
  • 1973 (M)
  • 1973 (L)
 Accession

Partially recognized state abiding by treaty

The Republic of China (Taiwan), which is currently recognized by [[International recognition of Template:Numrec/ROC Template:Numrec/ROC|Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character "[". UN member states]], ratified the treaty prior to the United Nations General Assembly's vote to transfer China's seat to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1971. When the PRC subsequently ratified the treaty, they described the Republic of China's (ROC) ratification as "illegal". The ROC has committed itself to continue to adhere to the requirements of the treaty, and the United States has declared that it still considers the ROC to be "bound by its obligations".[5]

State Signed Deposited Method
 Republic of China 1967 1970 Ratification

States that have signed but not ratified

22 states have signed but not ratified the treaty.

State Signed
 Bolivia 1967 (W)
 Botswana 1967 (W)
 Burundi 1967 (W)
 Cameroon 1967 (W)
 Central African Republic 1967 (W)
 Colombia[39] 1967 (W)
 Democratic Republic of the Congo
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (M)
  • 1967 (L)
 Ethiopia
  • 1967 (L, W)
  • 1967 (M)
 Gambia 1967 (L)
 Ghana
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (M)
  • 1967 (L)
 Guyana 1967 (W)
 Haiti 1967 (W)
  Holy See 1967 (L)
 Honduras 1967 (W)
 Iran 1967 (L)
 Jordan 1967 (W)
 Lesotho 1967 (W)
 Malaysia
  • 1967 (W)
  • 1967 (L)
  • 1967 (M)
 Philippines
  • 1967 (L, W)
  • 1967 (M)
 Rwanda 1967 (W)
 Somalia 1967 (W)
 Trinidad and Tobago
  • 1967 (L)
  • 1967 (M)
  • 1967 (W)

List of non-parties

The remaining UN member states and United Nations General Assembly observer states which have neither ratified nor signed the Outer Space Treaty are:


  •  Albania
  •  Andorra
  •  Angola
  •  Belize
  •  Bhutan
  •  Brunei
  •  Cambodia
  •  Cape Verde
  •  Chad
  •  Comoros
  •  Republic of the Congo
  •  Costa Rica
  •  Djibouti
  •  Dominica
  •  East Timor
  •  Eritrea
  •  Eswatini
  •  Gabon
  •  Georgia
  •  Grenada
  •  Guatemala
  •  Guinea
  •  Ivory Coast
  •  Kiribati
  •  Kyrgyzstan
  •  Latvia
  •  Liberia
  •  Liechtenstein
  •  Malawi
  •  Maldives
  •  Marshall Islands
  •  Mauritania
  •  Federated States of Micronesia
  •  Moldova
  •  Monaco
  •  Montenegro
  •  Mozambique
  •  Namibia
  •  Nauru
  •  North Macedonia
  •  Palau
  •  Palestine
  •  Saint Kitts and Nevis
  •  Saint Lucia
  •  Samoa
  •  São Tomé and Príncipe
  •  Senegal
  •  Serbia
  •  Solomon Islands
  •  South Sudan
  •  Sudan
  •  Suriname
  •  Tajikistan
  •  Tanzania
  •  Turkmenistan
  •  Tuvalu
  •  Uzbekistan
  •  Vanuatu
  •  Zimbabwe


See also


References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. https://treaties.unoda.org/t/outer_space. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "TREATY ON PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE ACTIVITIES OF STATES IN THE EXPLORATION AND USE OF OUTER SPACE, INCLUDING THE MOON AND OTHER CELESTIAL BODIES". Foreign and Commonwealth Office. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/447550/12._Exploration___Use_of_Outer_Space__1967__status_list.pdf. 
    "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies [London version"]. Foreign and Commonwealth Office. https://treaties.fco.gov.uk/awweb/pdfopener?md=1&did=70785. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies". United States Department of State. 30 June 2017. https://www.state.gov/outer-space-treaty. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Dohovor o pryncypach dejateľnosty hosudarstv po yssledovanyju y yspoľzovanyju kosmyčeskoho prostranstva, vkľučaja Lunu y druhye nebesnыe tela" (in ru). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia. 16 January 2013. http://www.mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/international_contracts/multilateral_contract/-/storage-viewer/spm_md.nsf/webdt/page-4/290B54346D114D77C3257D8D003037EC?_storageviewer_WAR_storageviewerportlet_advancedSearch=false&_storageviewer_WAR_storageviewerportlet_keywords=1967&_storageviewer_WAR_storageviewerportlet_fromPage=search&_storageviewer_WAR_storageviewerportlet_andOperator=1. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "China: Accession to Outer Space Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/a/outer_space/china/acc/washington. 
  6. ↑ In addition, the Republic of China in Taiwan, which is currently recognized by [[International recognition of Template:Numrec/ROC Template:Numrec/ROC|Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character "[". UN member states]], ratified the treaty prior to the United Nations General Assembly's vote to transfer China's seat to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1971.
  7. ↑ "Outer Space Treaty". https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/isn/5181.htm. 
  8. ↑ "Outer Space Treaty". https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/isn/5181.htm. 
  9. ↑ Shakouri Hassanabadi, Babak (30 July 2018). "Space Force and international space law". http://www.thespacereview.com/article/3543/1. 
  10. ↑ Irish, Adam (13 September 2018). "The Legality of a U.S. Space Force". OpinioJuris. http://opiniojuris.org/2018/09/13/the-legality-of-a-u-s-space-force/. 
  11. ↑ Buono, Stephen (2020-04-02). "Merely a 'Scrap of Paper'? The Outer Space Treaty in Historical Perspective". Diplomacy and Statecraft 31 (2): 350-372. doi:10.1080/09592296.2020.1760038. 
  12. ↑ "Outer Space Treaty". https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/isn/5181.htm. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 If space is ‘the province of mankind’, who owns its resources? Senjuti Mallick and Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan. The Observer Research Foundation. 24 January 2019. Quote 1: "The Outer Space Treaty (OST) of 1967, considered the global foundation of the outer space legal regime, […] has been insufficient and ambiguous in providing clear regulations to newer space activities such as asteroid mining." *Quote2: "Although the OST does not explicitly mention "mining" activities, under Article II, outer space including the Moon and other celestial bodies are "not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty" through use, occupation or any other means."
  14. ↑ Szoka, Berin; Dunstan, James (1 May 2012). "Law: Is Asteroid Mining Illegal?". Wired. http://www.wired.com/2012/05/opinion-asteroid-mining/. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Who Owns Space? US Asteroid-Mining Act Is Dangerous And Potentially Illegal. IFL. Accessed on 9 November 2019. Quote 1: "The act represents a full-frontal attack on settled principles of space law which are based on two basic principles: the right of states to scientific exploration of outer space and its celestial bodies and the prevention of unilateral and unbriddled commercial exploitation of outer-space resources. These principles are found in agreements including the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 and the Moon Agreement of 1979." *Quote 2: "Understanding the legality of asteroid mining starts with the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. Some might argue the treaty bans all space property rights, citing Article II."
  16. ↑ "Space Law". https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/index.html. 
  17. ↑ "International Space Station legal framework" (in en). https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station/International_Space_Station_legal_framework. 
  18. ↑ "NASA: Artemis Accords". https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html. 
  19. ↑ "The Outer Space Treaty". https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html. 
  20. ↑ Bourbonniere, M.; Lee, R. J. (2007). "Legality of the Deployment of Conventional Weapons in Earth Orbit: Balancing Space Law and the Law of Armed Conflict". European Journal of International Law 18 (5): 873. doi:10.1093/ejil/chm051. 
  21. ↑ Frakes, Jennifer (2003). "The Common Heritage of Mankind Principle and the Deep Seabed, Outer Space, and Antarctica: Will Developed and Developing Nations Reach a Compromise?". Wisconsin International Law Journal: 409. 
  22. ↑ Outer Space Treaty of 1967#Article VIII 
  23. ↑ Wikisource:Outer Space Treaty of 1967#Article VII
  24. ↑ Terrill Jr., Delbert R. (May 1999), Project West Ford, "The Air Force Role in Developing International Outer Space Law" (PDF), Air Force History and Museums:63–67
  25. ↑ Wikisource:Outer Space Treaty of 1967#Article IX
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Davies, Rob (6 February 2016). "Asteroid mining could be space's new frontier: the problem is doing it legally.". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/feb/06/asteroid-mining-space-minerals-legal-issues. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Koch, Jonathan Sydney (2008). "Institutional Framework for the Province of all Mankind: Lessons from the International Seabed Authority for the Governance of Commercial Space Mining.". Astropolitics 16 (1): 1–27. doi:10.1080/14777622.2017.1381824. 
  28. ↑ "U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act". Act No. H.R.2262 of 5 December 2015. 114th Congress (2015–2016) Sponsor: Rep. McCarthy, Kevin. https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/2262. 
  29. ↑ Ridderhof, R. (18 December 2015). "Space Mining and (U.S.) Space Law". https://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/2015/12/space-mining-and-u-s-space-law/. 
  30. ↑ "Law Provides New Regulatory Framework for Space Commerce | RegBlog". 31 December 2015. http://www.regblog.org/2015/12/31/rathz-space-commerce-regulation/. 
  31. ↑ "Text of Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. 2007-01-23. http://www.jaxa.jp/library/space_law/chapter_2/2-2-1-2_e.html. 
  32. ↑ Gangale, Thomas (2006), "Who Owns the Geostationary Orbit?", Annals of Air and Space Law 31, http://pweb.jps.net/~gangale/opsa/ir/WhoOwnsGeostationaryOrbit.htm, retrieved 2011-10-14. 
  33. ↑ "History: Treaties". https://unoosa.org/oosa/en/aboutus/history/treaties.html. 
  34. ↑ "Space Law Treaties and Principles". https://unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties.html. 
  35. ↑ "A History of Space". https://unoosa.org/oosa/en/timeline/index.html. 
  36. ↑ Beyond UNISPACE: It's time for the Moon Treaty. Dennis C. O'Brien. Pace Review. 21 January 2019.
  37. ↑ "Space Law Treaties and Principles". https://unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties.html. 
  38. ↑ Status of international agreements relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2008 United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, 2008
  39. ↑ "Presidencia de la republica". http://cce.gov.co/prensa/aprobado-proyecto-de-ley-que-ratifica-el-compromiso-de-colombia-con-el-desarrollo-espacial. 


Further reading

  • Annette Froehlich, et al.: A Fresh View on the Outer Space Treaty. Springer, Vienna 2018, ISBN:978-3-319-70433-3.

External links



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